Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 43

Business Law - Essay Example Loss of jobs does not go hand in hand with employment law that states that employees should not be terminated without a reasonable cause. When people lose their jobs, it means that they will live below the poverty line. The government therefore will not have attained its objective of poverty reduction because as others earn more, others lose. Another reason why the minimum wage should not be raised is that low wage workers will lack the incentive to educate themselves further. When workers are paid more, they will lack the motivation to enroll in colleges and further their education. It therefore means that workers will gets stuck in their jobs for longer periods instead of moving to other rewarding jobs. The overall effect will be that the country’s education level will be low. Finally, minimum wage should not be raised because raising minimum wage means that more money will be pocketed by the poor people at the expense of the employer. In order to cater for the increase in income, it means that the employer will find ways increasing income through ways such as increasing taxes. If taxes are increased, then the welfare of the people will not be catered

Animal Testing Essay Example for Free

Animal Testing Essay â€Å"If you want to test cosmetics and drugs, why do it on some poor animal who hasnt done anything? They should use prisoners who have been convicted of murder or rape instead. So, rather than seeing if perfume irritates a bunny rabbits eyes, they should throw it in Charles Mansons eyes and ask him if it hurts.† ― Ellen DeGeneres, My PointAnd I Do Have One. None have ever thought about when he or she buy a cosmetic product that they are contributing to the agonizing procedures animals have to endure to bring the finished product to their use. Each year in the United States an estimated 20-70 million animals, from cats, dogs and primates, to rabbits, rats and mice suffer and die in the name of research. 92% of the drugs that passed for animals during testing did not pass for humans, and therefore many animals have been hurt, scarred for life, or even put to death for nothing. Animals should stop being the lab-rats for testing products because, many animals are hurt and die during the agonizing procedures they are forced to endure while testing without anesthetics to ease their pain with horrible environments to live in , medical testing on animals is an outdated practice that has it flaws and is sometimes false and misleading, finally animal testing is archaic and many other options to test drugs and products are optional instead of using animals. Animal testing provides inaccurate results that are also misleading. There is a 92% chance that drugs that pass animals will not cope or work the same for humans for various of reasons. One of these reasons is that animal systems are far different than a humans ( immune system) . Human disease does not happen in animals, it is usually artificially created, therefore not so similarly the same as the actual disease, just something a bit similar in characteristics. An example of this is if the air outside your house was a similar compound to oxygen, but not quite, would you risk your life and go outside? Likewise, animal testing always has its flaws. For example, in a repeated animal study failed to show t he similarities between cigarette smoking and lung cancer. As a result of this effect, it slowed down the public warnings about the dangers of cigarettes, regardless of a huge amount of human data available at that time. Similarly, some experiments such as stroke research with rodents caused false conclusions, misleading research and wasted funds and manpower (time). Of the 25 drugs which reduced the effect of stroke in rodents, not even a smudge of it worked in a human patient . Certainly medical testing on animals is very inaccurate with many flaws. In general 104,000 animals during testing each year were used in research that was either painful, distressful, or both with nothing to ease their pain and they of course got hurt. If the animal had been severely hurt during testing they must undergo countless surgeries that are painful, and sometimes without anesthetics. In addition to add to the pain , animals are kept in harsh environments during testing such as, clear or white plastic boxes about the size of a shoebox for small animals like the mouse and about a box 2 times the size for larger animals like guinea pigs. Not only are animals kept in such small concrete boxes, usually more than two animal live in one box. The effects of this are potent, because this increase the chances an animal can catch disease from one another and increases the chances animals can attack one another, shown in 1960s studies scientists made . If animals do not die from testing, they gain permanent effects, such as blindness are used in more than one test if the animal pass the conditions to be experimented on. God loved the birds and invented trees. Man loved the birds and invented cages. Jacques Deval, Afin de vivre bel et bien Many scientists say if animal testing is banned how will medical research continue? Are we willing to sacrifice millions of sick and dying loved humans, who have families and complex emotions, for the sake of a bunch of mice who will only live a year or two anyway? However, the answer to this question is no, because there are many other ways to test drugs. One such way is microdosing (in virtro technology). What is microdosing you may ask to yourself? Microdosing is is a technique for studying the behavior of drugs in humans through the administration of doses so low they are unlikely to produce whole-body effects, but high enough to allow the cellular response to be studied. This technique is fairly safe to humans , and a better approach than killing innocent animals with horrible results. Microdosing is also cheaper, faster and much more accurate than testing poor animals. Thus, animal testing is a dreadful technique scientists use to test drugs and cosmetics on. The negative effects of this technique outweigh the positive effects. There are many other techniques to study drugs that are more beneficial and cheaper than animal testing and most importantly, no one is hurt in the outcome. Treat animals as if they are humans since they are living souls too. Try to put yourself â€Å"in their shoes.†

The Gothic Tradition in Stokers Dracula and Wildes Picture of Dorian

The Gothic Tradition in Stoker's Dracula and Wilde's Picture of Dorian Gray Gothic Literature was a natural progression from romanticism, which had existed in the 18th Century. Initially, such a ‘unique’ style of literature was met with a somewhat mixed response; although it was greeted with enthusiasm from members of the public, literary critics were much more dubious and sceptical. Gothic writing is a style of literature that relies upon the evocation of moods, feelings and imagery for impact. This style of writing was developed during an age of great scientific discovery – such literature marked a reaction against the prevailing ‘Age of Enlightenment’. Many Gothic authors opposed the new-found faith and enthusiasm placed in these discoveries, believing that they restricted freedom of imagination. Consequently, Gothic writers inhabited areas where no answers are provided – exploiting people’s fears and offering answers that are in stark contrast to the otherwise scientific explanations. Gothic writing is a style that depends upon the evocation of moods, which is reflected mainly in the writing style of a novel. ‘Dracula’ is written in the first person – ‘I must have been asleep’ - with a constant change of narrator within chapters. Wilde, however, wrote in the third person, omniscient, giving us the observer’s point of view whilst still showing us the intelligence and class of his characters through the language that they use – ‘come, Mr Gray, my hansom is outside’. The diary entries or notes used in ‘Dracula’ are fragmented and have an epistolary structure ‘Jonathon Harker’s Journal’. This emphasises each of the character’s feelings of isolation and loneliness, adding to the appeal of the reader. During the entries, Stok... ... die, innocence and good is corrupted and there is a connection to sexuality. Both novels create an aspect of mystery for the reader of the 19th century. Stoker’s portrayal of a creature little known by the English public of the 1890’s would have been of fear inspiring fascination to read about. Though few would have read John Palidori’s vampire novel, more perhaps would have heard the tale of Vlad the Impaler. He was a man who supposedly drank human blood or the blood of his war victims, and was in fact a ‘Dracule’. This basis in reality would add a sadistic interest to the novel. Wilde’s novel, though equally inexplicable, doesn’t create the same feeling of terror, but does raise a number of reservations in its reader. Both novels are seemingly successful texts in upholding the interest of the reader through many of the typical conventions of the Gothic tradition.

An Analysis Of Environmental Toxicology Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Toxicology is a quickly developing field concerned with the research how natural and semisynthetic pollutants impact the wellness of worlds, wildlife, and whole ecosystems. It involves application of a assortment of techniques to analyze the impact of toxic agents on life beings and provides powerful tools for measuring the hazards associated with the presence of these agents. It draws on a assortment of scientific subjects to depict, step, explain and predict the badness and frequence of inauspicious effects on life beings due to environmental poisonous exposure. Pollution, depletion of resources and decomposition of ecological maps are of planetary, regional and local concerns. Environmental toxicology nowadayss many practical applications to these jobs. The findings are used by authorities bureaus to put new pollution control criterions and to analyse the badness of harm in an ecosystem and develop the smartest ways to travel about cleaning it up. Land development co mpanies may besides work with environmental toxicologists to do certain that glade and building attempts are every bit environmentally-friendly as possible. It involves proving dirt, H2O, and air samples to look for the beginning pollution, and utilize their findings to better understand wellness impacts on native species. Pakistan, as developing state, is confronting challenges with a figure of serious environmental issues such as devolution of natural resources, industrial and vehicular pollution, pollution of coastal environment, impairment of human wellness. Sum uping in fiscal footings, the one-year cost of environmental disparagement in the state is about 4.3 % of GDP ( US $ 4.3 billion ) . This workshop is about the turning sum of pollution in Pakistan. Examines findings of different surveies turn outing that wellness is being adversely affected by a assortment of environmental contaminations. The above state of affairs has arisen due to a figure of factors including high pop ulation growing rate, predominating poorness, unplanned urban and industrial enlargement, deficient accent on environmental protection in the authorities policies, deficiency of public consciousness and instruction and deficiency of institutional capacity and resources for effectual environmental direction. To forestall continued environmental debasement and the diminution of human & A ; environmental wellness, interactions between human, other life beings and the environment have to be in harmoniousness. This is accomplishable through an integrated, holistic attack embracing instruction and research activities in natural scientific disciplines, socio-economic and political factors with technological, economic and socio-cultural intercessions. Increasing consciousness of environmental debasement is ensuing in proliferation of environmental statute law throughout the universe. This thrust towards greater environmental protection has created a demand for scientists skilled in measurin g environmental resources and more significantly the jobs associated with their development. Environmental appraisal may be required to measure the biological, physical or hydrological resources of any environment, and to put these resources within a wider geographical context. This workshop is an attempt to supply a wide foundation of scientific based accomplishments to germinate, fiting environmental professions, peculiarly in countries associating to environmental protection and direction. Furthermore, the national and international demands have been under concern for better environmental direction understanding the inter-relationship between sustainable economic development and environmental protection. Opening comments from Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf, Chairman section of pharmacological medicine and toxicology/the Director Research UVAS, were followed by that of Prof. Dr. Mohammad Nawaz, Vice Chancellor of the Exchequer UVAS, and Prof. Dr. Mrs. Kausar Jamal Cheema, Dean Faculty of Natural Sciences, Lahore College for Women University, all of whom emphasized the importance to use the corporate wisdom in proviso of improved methods for toxicity appraisal and rational agencies for gauging wellness hazard in order to advance public wellness and to supply a better and safer environment to forestall wellness jobs before they occur. They added further it is our mission to develop new environmental toxicologists and reference pertinent environmental toxicology inquiries through instruction and research in countries such as chemical destiny, bioavailability, biological consequence, toxicokinetics, and mechanisms of action. A focal point on interdisciplinary attacks and scientific accomplishm ents is cardinal to our instruction and research activities. Dr. Sohail Ejaz ( co-author of this study ) , PhD, University of Cambridge, UK co-ordinator and workshop organiser presented on the advanced appraisal techniques for measuring impact of Air Pollution upon Neuroinflammatory diseases of Central nervous system and how these surveies could be implemented in our research labs. New dimensions have been added to the array of result steps. Medical outcomes research now recognizes that patient wellbeing should be loosely conceptualized and measured strictly, in add-on to sing the biological procedure of the disease itself. As a consequence, health-related quality of life, the perceptual experience of wellbeing, is now considered a necessary constituent of results research. Toxicologic surveies have besides gained in edification through incorporation of more sensitive indexs of consequence and the careful tracing of the relationship between exposure and biologically relevant doses to aim sites, which may now be considered at a molecular degree . He besides gave an overview of all his research activities conducted at Department of Clinical Neuroscience and how to work upon such techniques in our state with scarced resources and what marks to be achieved farther to get the better of environmental pollution issues in Pakistan. Dr. Sohail Ejaz bring to a stopping point to develop and back up research plans, outreach and other services that address critical issues in environmental wellness and toxicology. An international talker Prof. Dr. Gerry Amor Camer, Dean, College of Veterinary Medicine from University of Eastern Philippines, wide casted through picture conferencing installation. He shared his singular research work on tissue toxicology and presented a talk on â€Å" Understanding the pathology of tissues exposed to assorted toxins and pollutants † . Assessment of the environmental effects of chemicals is complicated as it depends on the beings tested and involves non merely the toxicity of single chemicals, but besides their synergistic effects, genotoxicity, mutagenecity and immunotoxicity testing. He farther elaborated that a figure of stressors affect the environment and sometimes when demoing interactive effects they become hard to quantify or foretell their single effects. Therefore, there is a demand to understand the poisonous effects at molecular degrees to foretell their effects and bing techniques to be invariably modified to supply better agencies of their qua ntification. Dr. Zulfiqar Ali, Department of wildlife and ecology, UVAS, presented on Beginnings and Health effects of different Air pollutants. The mechanisms for patterning and understanding the destiny of air pollutants through atmospheric conveyance, deposition into H2O and dirt, bioaccumulation, and ultimate consumption to receptor variety meats and systems in the human organic structure are complex. These require more experimental and theoretical developments in order to bring forth attacks for word picture and appropriate schemes and checks for testing in order to observe the harmful agents and forestall them from making sensitive end points. This seminar and workshop provided research workers from all over Pakistan a comprehensive platform where all aspects of environmental pollution as it exists in our state to be to the full explored and a forum to these professionals and research workers to discourse and present latest research tendencies and consequences in the field of Toxicology. Such enterprises help to back up the survey, analysis, and solution of environmental jobs which are finally impacting the wellness of human existences, animate beings, workss, dirts and over all eco-system unity. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ashraf highlighted different research activities rendered by the section of Pharmacology and Toxicology in the recent old ages at his establishment. He discussed the constitution of new research labs at the section an attempt to open room accesss to many new dimensions therefore advancing the promotion and application of scientific research related to the contaminations. This included the constitution of Angioge nesis & A ; Toxicology lab ( ATRL ) and a Neuropharmacology lab in the module a progressive measure for Applied Neuropharmacology & A ; Cancer research. He elaborated further that our research aims to find how environmental pollutants interact with cellular maps and give rise to durable inauspicious wellness effects in craniates including worlds. We are peculiarly interested in toxic effects that target the endocrine system, the generative system and the early encephalon development and other systems in craniates. Enzyme-catalysed activation in mark cells and tissues and receptor-mediated responses are of import countries of research. With an debut of these research labs, it is besides an attempt in pulling really high quality pupils across Pakistan and foreign qualified and relevant module members to take lead on feasible research undertakings needed to turn to our country-specific jobs. Speakers from assorted universities and Govt. sections presented their research undertakings and research documents. Mr. Khaleeq Anwar, PhD Scholar, presented his work on â€Å" Impact of Automobile jinrikisha on Public wellness † . He presented grounds that Automobile jinrikishas are among one of the major beginnings of air pollution in Pakistan, contaminations released from them include the major pollutants Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) , Nitrogen Oxides ( NOx ) , Hydrocarbons ( HC ) and Particulate Matter ( PM ) showing their annihilating effects in deteriorating public wellness. To hold a control over contaminations realized by these two-or three stroke conventional jinrikishas CNG jinrikisha were introduced. Mr. Rizwan Ahmad, Assistant Director, Vehicular Pollution Control, Govt. of Punjab, farther extended the talk by showing on â€Å" Advantages of CNG over other fuels † . He presented his survey on the nature of the poisons wastewater by firing natural gas as fuel and a comparative analysis was made between the nature of the contaminations released by both conventional car jinrikisha and CNG jinrikisha. Statistically important information was evidenced that emphasized the usage of CNG jinrikisha to be preferred over the conventional two-or three shot jinrikishas. Lubna Shakir, PhD Scholar, discussed the public wellness jobs aroused due to dispatch of tannery wastewater effluent straight into the land in the metropolis of Kasur. The environment is under increasing force per unit area from solid and liquid wastes emanating from the leather industry. These are inevitable byproducts of the leather fabrication procedure and cause important pollution unless treated in some manner prior to dispatch. The consequence of inordinate pollutant degrees normally found in tannery wastewaters can be terrible. Water is so contaminated that drinkable H2O has high degrees of Cr and other poisons have been reported in appreciable sums unfit to be used by public. She presented a comprehensive talk entitled, â€Å" Chemical, microbiological and toxicological showing of tannery wastewater effluent † . In her work she quantified the assorted poisons and studied their hurtful effects utilizing research lab animate beings by utilizing assorted dilutions of this tannery waterwaste. She farther elaborated her talk that appraisal of the environmental effects of chemicals is complicated as it depends on the beings tested and involves non merely the toxicity of single chemicals, but multiple factors are involved in relation to wellness behaviours, which may frequently ensue in inauspicious wellness results. Zahida Umer, a immature research worker, outlined the informations demoing the Measurement of pollution degrees in different countries of Lahore by utilizing C monoxide, sulfur dioxide metres, and other available contaminant measuring metres and impacter for particulate affair in different countries of Lahore and provided a comparative analysis of these poisons at different countries. She farther lucubrated her talk by explicating different methodological analysiss for air pollution measuring. Air pollution can be straight measured as it is emitted by a beginning in mass/volume of emanation ( e.g. , grams/m3 ) or mass/process parametric quantity ( e.g. , grams/Kg fuel consumed or grams/second ) . Air pollution can besides be measured in the ambiance as a concentration ( e.g. , micrograms/m3 ) . Ambient air supervising informations is used to find air quality, set up the extent of air pollution jobs, assess whether established criterions are being met, and qualify the possible human w ellness hazard in an country. Alternatively, air pollution concentrations can be simulated utilizing computing machine theoretical accounts, and so validated utilizing informations collected from direct measurings at selected proctors or beginnings. Air pollution informations and theoretical accounts are used together to analyze the impacts of control schemes on the ambient air. Kanwal Zahra, Government College University, presented on â€Å" Effectss of industrial wastewater on the thyroid secretory organs of human population † . The human organic structure is vastly complex, and our cognition and consciousness of its complexness continues to turn. One of the most disquieting finds in recent old ages concerns the possible functions of environmental chemicals on endocrinal systems. Among the endocrines ( â€Å" chemical couriers † ) operating within the hormone system are estrogen ( a female sex endocrine produced by the ovaries ) ; thyroid endocrine ( act uponing the map of virtually every cell in the organic structure ) ; and ACTH ( produced by the pituitary secretory organ to act upon the release of epinephrine from the adrenal secretory organ ) . Endocrine systems can be affected by these pollutants by interfering with the normal communicating between the courier and the cell receptors, the chemical message is misinterpreted, bring forthing unnatural response ( s ) in the organic structure. As thyroid secretory organs let go ofing endocrines act uponing the entire metabolic rate of the organic structure, in her survey she evidenced the assorted pathological results of thyroid poisoning by these industrial wastes and could be the possible damaging effects resulted. Prof. Dr. Sharif Mughal, Government College University, discussed the impact of assorted poisons on Marine environment. Petroleum hydrocarbons are found in sea surface movie throughout the universe. The oceans have served as a depository for a battalion of wastes and receive wastewater from rivers, watercourses, and groundwater. Atmospheric deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) and other hydrocarbons adds to the load of pollutants in the marine environment. Industrial smokestacks, incinerators, outfall pipes, cars, lawn chemicals, agricultural chemicals, places, concerns, commercial ships, and motorised pleasance trade are all beginnings of contaminations. Many of these chemicals are fat-soluble and come to shack in the fatty tissues of Marine animate beings. Some of these chemicals have been characterized as endocrinal disrupters ; some are believed to cut down generative success, to interfere with developmental procedures, and/or to stamp down immune map. Other ch emicals, such as PAHs, do non bioaccumulate in marine mammals but may hold inauspicious impacts on the wellness of Marine animate beings through repeated exposure and metabolic response. He evidenced the above scenario by showing his survey on the Serological and histological alterations in the liver of Labeo Rohita dur due to fluoride poisoning. An attempt to qualify the types of lesions produced by these chemical contaminations found in, the metabolic response to such contaminations, and the extent of tissue harm caused by exposure to these contaminations. He farther elaborated his talk that animate beings are exposed to natural poisons in their native environments every bit good as to man-made chemicals and drugs. Factors that affect the toxicity include ; those related to the poisons, which influence how it A ­A ­enter and finally act upon the factors related to the host animate beings that change its ability to detoxicate or accommodate to the poison. The concluding Lecture of the workshop was presented on the subject, â€Å" Word picture of Environmental pathologies by immunohistochemistry † by Dr. Sohail Ejaz, PhD, University of Cambridge, England. He flesh out his talk that Environmental toxicity encompasses the survey of the toxic belongingss of non merely man-made chemicals but natural besides, including their effects on worlds and animate beings every bit good as their motion and destiny in the environment. It is a demand to develop research techniques for the appraisals of effects of these pollutants and supervising their deadly effects non on human wellness merely but impacting every life being and our eco-system. Therefore seting our joint attempts to supply a better and safer environment to forestall wellness jobs before they occur. Decision: This was a variegate workshop to back up and advance the survey, analysis, and solution of environmental jobs which finally impacting the wellness of human existences, animate beings, workss, dirts, harm edifices and other belongings and upheaval of awareness degree at National and International degree through research and development. We can populate a healthy life in a clean environment and it can merely be achieved by recognizing and understanding the importance of clean environment. Therefore to supply consciousness about the effects of all possible environmental pollutants and the corresponding steps to be taken to diminish contaminations exposure. Besides to promote research techniques for the appraisal of effects of these pollutants and supervising their deadly effects on human wellness and conserving and protecting our environment. Disclosures and Auxiliary Information: This workshop was organized at Department of Pharmacology & A ; Toxicology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore in coaction with the Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, UK This meeting was funded by Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Physical Restraints on Dementia Patients Essay

Introduction A patient’s safety is one of a nurse’s primary concerns. It has become a big issue focused on by the general public and policy-makers after medical errors have been increasingly publicized and more hospital-related injuries are reported (Stanford University, 2001). The International Council of Nurses define a nurse’s role as someone who can work on his own and/or in a team to care for people of all age groups, their families, social groups, and communities, whether well or unwell, and in different settings. Nurses promote health, prevent illness, and look after the sick, disabled and the dying. Furthermore, they advocate for a safe environment, participate in research and moulding new policies to better the health care system. (International Council of Nurses, 2010). But what happens if a nurse has to decide between a patient’s safety and upholding that patient’s right to freedom, dignity, and respect? For this assignment, the researcher wishes to take a closer look on physical restraint use in the elderly, specifically on dementia patients and why nurses find the need to use restraints important despite the drive of facilities and hospitals to eradicate or lessen their use. With the decrease in cognitive capability in some of the elderly patients, how comfortable are nurses in putting them on restraints? Do they find these patients are ripped off of their independence? If restraints are not to be used, then what alternatives are nurses left with? These are some of the questions the researcher aims to answer through a review of current literature on the topic. Background Old age brings about numerous problems including physical, emotional, and functional disorders. (Butler & Lewis, 2003). Storrs (2008) describes old age as a biological change which causes diminishing powers of adjustment. This is evident when we see patients unable to cope with their surroundings. Some common physical changes in old age include decrease in cardiac output, increase in blood pressure, impairment of gas exchange, elevation of blood glucose, decline in lean body mass, and loss of muscle mass which makes an elderly person’s locomotion difficult (Boss &  Seegmiller, 2001). Not only do changes occur physically, but the elderly also experience various mental alterations. Mental changes may occur following normal aging, medication side effects, and natural functional loss. (Woodward, 2004). Common mental impairments associated with old age include decline in memory retention, depression, and increased anxiety. (Woodward, 2004). Physical and mental changes in older adults make them vulnerable to accidents, often ending with them hurting themselves. This is more so if the patients suffer from Dementia. Although not a normal part of ageing, Dementia is a common disease in people over 65 years of age. (Ministry of Health, 2013). Dementia is a term used to describe decrease of brain function resulting in memory loss, poor communication skills, absence of reasoning, and inability to perform activities of daily living. (Bupa, 2010). It causes patients to be forgetful and confused, with little or no regard to hazards around them. Confusion, lack of insight, and impulsiveness can result to a display of behavioural problems, thereby making patients with Dementia prone to accidents and injuries (Ministry of Health, 2013). A study by Cunningham (2006) investigates why institutionalised Dementia patients tend to be more â€Å"disruptive†. He states that an unfamiliar setting combined with memory problems can be a scary situation for Dementia patients and they react to how they see fit. Adding to this, hospital routines may be misinterpreted which can lead to behaviours that are challenging. (Cunningham, 2006) However, there is a strong suggestion that nurses must try to understand the meaning behind challenging behaviours, and seek ways to inculcate familiarity and lessen distress amongst Dementia patients. (Cunningham, 2006). The numerous mental, physical, and emotional problems of patients with Dementia leave nursing staff to assist and supervise these patients in most of their activities (Weiner, Tabak, & Bergman, 2003). It is therefore vital that nurses take extra precautions when looking after patients with Dementia to prevent them from doing things that may hurt them or the people around them. Because of the continuous demands to keep patients safe while allowing time to perform daily tasks, some nurses are forced to involve coercion in the form of physical restraints. (Weiner, Tabak, & Bergman, 2003). A physical restraint is any mechanical or physical means or equipment attached to a person, which restricts movement, mobility, or access to a one’s body. (Health Care Financing Administration,  2000). It may include, but is not limited to, anklets, vest, straight jacket, and lap belts. A device may be considered as a restraint depending on its effect on a person. For example, a sheet may not be a restraint when used as a blanket; however, tucking the sides under the mattress and restricting the person from getting out of bed makes it a restraint. A geri-chair or a tray table are ordinarily not restraints but if they are used to stop a person from getting up, then it becomes one. (Health Care Financing Administration, 2000) Physical restraints are not medical interventions, and its application can be based upon a caregiver’s decision. The Nursing Interventions Classification define physically restraining a patient as putting on, taking off, or causing a device to limit his mobility (Sullivan-Marx, 1996). Account of current practice Dementia is the progressive decline in cognitive function which is more than what is expected to occur as a person advances in age. It is a non-specific disease which affects brain function, memory, communication skills, problem solving, and attention. (Nordqvist, 2009). In New Zealand, it is estimated that 60% of residents in care homes are diagnosed with moderate to severe Dementia, and every year an additional 250 beds are allocated for new admissions with the same diagnosis. (Bupa, 2010). An article in The New Zealand Herald reveals that 50,000 people in New Zealand are now living with Dementia, and the number could triple by 2050 (The New Zealand Herald, 2013). However, with the increase in dependency in aged care, there is an alarming decrease in the number of qualified staff willing and able to care for these patients (New Zealand Labour, 2010). Because Dementia patients are unable to reason and decide for themselves, their welfare is almost always left in the hands of the nurses looking after them. But with the complex patients that are handled by nurses daily, it is common for staff to use physical restraints on patients to get them to do what the nurses expect them to do, within the time frame they are expected to be done. (Weiner, Tabak, & Bergman, 2003). But nurses are not just to restrain patients. As professionals governed by a specific body, nurses’ use of restraints is to be limited. In 18 July 2005,  a policy was released by the Canterbury District Health Board (CDHB) Restraint Approval and Monitoring Group stating that all care facilities and acute hospitals in the region are to limit restraint use on patients. (Restraint Approval & Monitoring Group) In the United States, 7%-10% of Dementia patients are at one point restrained during hospitalisation, with 8% actually being tied down (McHutchion & Morse, 1998). These numbers were gathered 11 years after strengthening of the Residents’ Bill of Rights in the USA which included the patients’ Right to freedom from physical restraints. (Klauber & Wright, 2001) In New Zealand, 3.4%-21% of acutely ill patients were restrained during hospitalisation, with the restraint duration of 2.7 -4.5 days. It is quite different from the number of cases of restraint use in residential care. It was reported that 12%- 47% of patients were restrained in care facilities, with 32% of them restrained no less than 20 days a month. There is a wide range of duration of restraint use from a day to 350 days in a year. (JBI, 2002) These numbers paved way for more researchers to look into the finding ways to effectively lessen restraint use. However, most studies still show that nurses are resistant to the idea of totally removing restraints as an option. Review Aim The rate of prevalence of Dementia cases, the decline in the number of qualified staff to look after them, and the rampant use of physical restraints on these patients are all very alarming. Even with policies in place to limit restraint use, nurses seem to still use physical restraints on patients. Basically, this review will circle around how much knowledge nurses have about physically restraining dementia patients. This review aims to discover nurses’ understanding of restraint use and unmask the reasons behind their choice to use physical restraint on Dementia patients. It aims to discover any restraint policy on restraint use in Dementia patients. It will compare data amongst available literature on nurses’ perception of physical restraints and their take on the drive for minimisation of its use. The effects of physical restraint on patients will also be uncovered as articles are subjected to analysis. Literature will also be analysed for any suggestions on how to totally eradicate or avoid restraint use. A study by the Centre for Medicare and Medicaid Services reveal that within the last decade, there has been a constant decrease in the number of physical  restraint use in care homes. From 1999, 21.1% of care facilities would physically restrain elderly patients. However, in 2007, the report states that less than 5% support restraints use. (Center for Medicaid and State Operations/Survey and Certification Group, 2008) The researcher aims to draw out a conclusion on the reason behind this change and discover why despite the constant drive of administrative bodies to minimise restraint use, nurses still apply physical restraints on the elderly patients. Search Strategy Search engines like the Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), PubMed, and Medline were utilised to find significant articles in relation to the review aim. Key words ‘physical restraint’, ‘dementia’, ‘long term care’, ‘nurse’ ‘attitude’ and ‘behaviour’ were used. Google and Yahoo search engines, and the New Zealand Nursing magazine Kai Tiaki, were also used to find related studies. After reading the found articles, the researcher finalised the most relative articles based on search criteria set out. The search criteria included full reports, quantitative or qualitative studies, and literature reviews. The articles have to be in English, published from 2000 to present, can be accessed fully, participated on by nurses, and limited on physical restraints used on Dementia patients. Because of the limitation in results, the researcher broadened the search and included studies done in acute settings, as long as the patient in restraint has a diagnosis of dementia. After further deliberation, 7 journal articles were chosen for the review. Critical analysis of the literature Three themes were drawn from the literatures chosen. These themes are a) factors that affect a nurse’s decision to use restraints b) why restraints are used and c) effects of restraints on dementia patients. a. Nurse Education influences decision-making The studies revealed that the nurse’s level of knowledge about restraints dictates their decision on whether to use restraints or not. According to the study by Yamamoto et al (2009), a nurse must have either a positive cognition or a negative cognition about restraints to consider its use or  choose not to act on a situation. Nurses also have to analyse the situation and decide on how to cope. Their coping dictates their decision-making. (Yamamoto & Aso, 2009) For this study, the authors surveyed 272 nurses in general wards in Japan using a questionnaire involving the ethical dilemma of using restraints. This study wanted to elaborate on how nurses make up a decision of restraining a patient based on how well they cope with difficult or challenging patients. Another study by Weiner et al (2003), states that a nurse has to have knowledge on patient’s rights, code of ethics, and restraint guidelines for them to decide on restraint use. The study further shows that restraint application can be viewed beneficial either to the patient, the nurse, or the institution. Comparing nurses in acute settings to those in care homes, it was found that the latter are less likely to agree to the use of restraints. This may be because most nurses working in care facilities have more knowledge about their facilities’ restraint guidelines. (Weiner, Tabak, & Bergman, 2003) Unlike other researchers, this study involves the institution and gives light to how big a role it plays in how a nurse decides about restraints. Testad et al (2005) performed a randomised single-blind controlled trial in four nursing homes in Norway. In their study, they conducted seminars and guidance sessions over six months for nurses working in care facilities. There was a documented decline of 54% inrestraint use after the educational programmes were concluded. (Testad, Aarsland,, & Aarsland, 2005) b. Reasons for Restraint Use Though nurses are trying to keep patients safe by applying physical restraints, these restraints are more harmful. Scherder et al (2010) view restraint use as detrimental to a dementia patient’s cognition and physical activity. They emphasize that using physical restraints on dementia patients causes more harm than good. Keeping dementia patients on restraints reduce physical mobility, increase patient’s stress, and even accelerate incontinence. (Scherder, Bogen, Eggermont, Hamers, & Swaab, 2010) A study in Israel by Natan et al (2010) 120 nurses were used as samples. 67.2% of these nurses admitted to having had restrained a patient over the past year. Some decision-making factors that nurses point at are subjective norms, the resident’s physical state, and the nurse’s own stress level. Nurses turn to restraints when a patient becomes increasingly difficult to manage and starts to prevent treatments such as intravenous infusions, catheter or tube insertions. (Natan, Akrish, Zaltkina, & Noy, 2010) Cotter states there is a greater likelihood for restraints to be put on dementia patients because they pose the most threat to fall, hurt themselves or hurt others. (Cotter, 2005) â€Å"In moderate to severe dementia, the risk for falls is greater because of gait apraxia and unsteadiness. Agitation, disorientation, and pacing behaviours from delirium and dementia can precipitate staff to use restraints.† (Cotter, 2005) c. Effects of Restraints on Patients One common denominator amongst the literatures in the review is the concern for the dementia patients on restraints. Some of the listed effects of physical restraints mentioned in these articles include function decline, pressure sores, incontinence, and increased agitation. Cotter referred to dementia patients as most prone for restraint application because of their increased confusion, wandering, poor memory, poor judgement and distraught perception. (Cotter, 2005) Wang (2005) states that there is no scientific evidence that states physical restraints protect patients. Though nurses believe that restraints can keep patients safe, it may be contrary to the fact. (Wang & Moyle, 2005). Accidents like asphyxiation when patients are caught between their restraints, and falls from when they try to climb out of bed rails have been documented. Another reason that restraints are not so good to use is because patients get fatigued from struggling when in restraints and then become unsteady once they get off the restraint. (Cotter, 2005) Restraints also leave a very negative experience on the patient. Dementia patients respond with anger, resistance, fear, and humiliation. The following is statement made by a patient after being restrained: (Strumpf & Evans, 1998) â€Å"I felt like a dog and cried all night. It hurt me to have to be tied up†¦the hospital is worse than a jail† Discussion Recently not a lot of studies have been made on the use of restraint on dementia patients. Most articles are outdated and not applicable anymore. With the mushrooming of nursing care homes and the booming industry of  nursing facilities, researches should be made on how nurses feel about eradicating or lessening restraint use. The locale of these studies is also not very diverse. More studies should be conducted in various settings and environments. A patient in acute care may have a different set of concerns compared to patients in long term care facilities. A thorough analysis of why patients would need restraints in respect with the different settings they are in would have been beneficial. Like knowledge, cultural beliefs may impact on a person’s decision. A study by Hamers et al (2009) used cross-sectional method to find out about reasons, consequences, and appropriateness of restraint use as seen by nurses from different parts of the world. They discovered that some degree of cultural differences determine these nurses’ ideas towards restraint use. (Hamers, Meyer, Kopke, Lindenmann, & Groven, 2009). Conducting studies in a more global approach can draw out an idea of why some nurses prefer physically restraining patients while others don’t. The studies show a decline in restraint use after education sessions were presented to nurses. They occur at short term, all within a 6-month period which may influence the outcome of the study. The lectures may have influenced the participants’ attitude towards restraint use because they were recent, and not because they were meaningful to their practice. The studies in the review indicate that nursing education plays a very important role in influencing nurses’ decision on using restraints. A nurse has to be presented the rationale, risks, and alternatives to restraint use for them to be able to make a decision. The Hawthorne Effect may play a part in the studies conducted. The term Hawthorne Effect was coined Henry Landsberger in 1953 to refer to participants altering their answers because of the knowledge that they are being observed. (Sonnenfeld, 1985). The nurse-participants may have opted not to restrain patients at the time the research was being conducted because of fear of being judged for their decisions. Another grey area not thoroughly discussed in the literatures reviewed is the influence of policies set out by governing bodies or administration on nurses’ decision making. It was briefly mentioned in the study by Weiner (2003) but never really elaborated on. The study stated that the institution is taken into consideration when nurses decide on restraint use. Nurses view the institution as one that benefits if restraints are used. (Weiner, Tabak,  & Bergman, 2003) A comparison of institution policies should have been made. These institution policies on restraint use differ in most care facilities and comparisons of how well nurses are in following them can draw a different angle on the situation of physically restraining patients. Also, the effectiveness of these policies should be evaluated to allow for their improvement. The studies also focused on reasons why patients are put on restraint. Not very well discussed was what happens with the nurse before he/she decides to use the restraint. The studies in the review failed to look at the situation from a nurse’s perspective. The clear message of the literatures reviewed is that restraints can and must be avoided in patients with Dementia. No scientific evidence shows that restraints promote safety for these patients. On the contrary, more studies show detrimental effects of restraint application. Personal review and implications for nursing practice The results of the studies reviewed all indicate that there is a need to highlight lack of education amongst nurses regarding restraint use. Because knowledge and sense of accountability play major roles in restraint application, keeping nurses updated with trends and new policies should be prioritised. Even with reports of decrease in restraint use, a number of incidents involving misuse of restraints are still rising. One in particular is the incident last September 2010 involving a known nursing care facility wherein it was proven that an 85-year old patient has been wrongly restrained on numerous occasions. The patient’s wife has been repeatedly objecting restraint use but the hospital did not oblige. The staff reasoned that the patient had a high falls risk, and high levels of agitation, aggressiveness and restlessness. The cause of the breach was said to be due to systemic failure (Otago Daily Times, 2013). This shows that though policies may be put in place, it is not an assurance that they are being followed. A closer look at the effectiveness of these policies and their appropriateness to the setting has to be taken into consideration. Currently the Canterbury District Health Board (CDHB) has a restraint minimisation and safe practice guideline in place. This supports their aim to reduce restraint use and treat restraints as a last resort to protect patients from harm. Nurses can be directed with the guidelines to ensure  safe practice. (Canterbury District Health Board, 2012) As mentioned earlier, a nurse’s perspective is often looked past. A study by Lai (2007) indicate that at times nurses feel that when it comes to issues on restraints, their â€Å"inadequacy and inaccurate knowledge† have always been magnified but rarely is the pressure to â€Å"do what is right† in d ifficult situations brought up. According to the study, nurses still use restraints despite ambivalence because of fear of responsibility. A patient may fall and break his hip because he was not restrained despite poor mobility. Another reason nurses tend to use restraints is because of lack of support from management. As the nurses reported, even if they do their best, issues on short-staffing can still push them to use restraints as an aide to keep patients safe. (Lai, 2007) Another reason mentioned by Lai (2007) in her study is the constant pressure that nurses feel from management. Often it is the culture of the unit that dictates a nurse’s willingness to restrain a patient. A ward that strives to keep fall incidents at a low would be happy to apply physical restraints on patients to achieve that goal. Conclusion The researcher observes a strong connection between how a nurse views a situation and the options he has on how to act upon that situation. These nurses must be given the opportunity to learn and relearn restraints to help them make valid and safe decisions for their patients. Without available options in place of restraint use, nurses will continue to utilise physical restraints because of the pressures they have to face with regards to the patients’ needs. A discussion of available options in place of restraint application is needed to allow for a more acceptable choice. Accountability of outcomes because of failed actions, like not applying a restraint, appears to be greater than putting a restraint on a patient. A dementia patient is still a human being entitled to his rights of freedom and dignity, and nurses have to weigh this with the notion that these patients may also be challenging. It is therefore necessary to refer to available guidelines to assist nurses in making a decision with regards to patients care. Also, keeping updated with trends in patient care may help nurses make informed decisions. Restraint use can easily become a norm when nurses feel it has been a common occurrence in a unit. All decisions have to be weighed in and thought of properly, exerting all other possible  interventions before restraints are utilised. A restraint-free environment is far from being realised when nurses, families and administration still regard it as a solution and not a problem. With that said, nurses should not be viewed as the culprits in restrai nt application. Instead, nurses should be part of the solution.

Free Essays on Imperialism

â€Å"In a process of natural selection, weaker individuals were weeded out and it enables the strongest to survive.† This is a quote explaining Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest). Imperialism is a perfect example of Social Darwinism. Nations extend their economic, political, or military control over weaker territories. Imperialism is a necessity in order to achieve the accomplishment of being the most respected country. Imperialism should not be debated on the issue of morals, what should be debated is whether it is necessary or not. The answer is yes, it is necessary. All other major powers throughout the world continued to expand. If the United States did not follow others, they would become the weaker power and eventually they would be taken over. If others were to improve, you need to improve as well, or else you will be weeded out due to Social Darwinism. Throughout the world, only the strongest countries would survive. It was survival of the fittest. In order to become the fittest, a country needs to become imperial. Imperialism allowed for new strategic military American locations, such as Hawaii. These locations help ensure the safety of Americans as they live in the strongest nation in the world. The annexation of Hawaii strongly helped America because of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. This gave the United States a warning of war. If we did not set up Pearl Harbor, then there is a chance our country could have been bombed, causing a great loss in security(military powers), lives, and in the economy. Pearl Harbor is just one example that shows how much different the United States might have been today if it were not for imperialism. The United States needed to expand, especially with all the newly acquired technology. It enabled American farms and factories to produce more than citizens can consume. America needed new markets and raw materials for its manufactured goods. Foreign trade was a solution to over... Free Essays on Imperialism Free Essays on Imperialism European imperialism emerged in the early eighteen hundreds and continued on into the early nineteen hundreds. While Rome used imperialism as a means to acquire territory and land, Europe had other means and motives to justify their imperialistic behavior. Europeans not only wanted to obtain land, but they also wanted to achieve power, politically and economically. The majority of the motivation for imperialism derived from the Industrial Revolution. The countries strived to obtain control over colonies in order to control strategic passages, such as the Straits of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal. They also wanted the control of overseas bases to keep ships and troops supplied and ready whenever needed. Not all Europeans imperialistic motives were selfish though. A large number of Europeans went overseas to try and help unfortunate people. They felt as though they were offering their "blessings" to the "pitiful heathens". European governments imposed their laws on the people and taught them how to rule in a structured fashion. European missionaries spread Christianity and humanitarians promoted public health and education. The British writer Rudyard Kipling termed Europe’s benefiting of the "backward" peoples of Africa and Asia "Th e White Man’s Burden". Many European countries also had a desire to increase their wealth and, therefore, had economic reasons for their imperialistic behavior. The great economic financiers, a few wealthy men, used their wealth and social connections to induce the government to protect their investments through political dominance over undeveloped lands. France, Britain, and Germany were the three main Imperialist Powers in Africa during the late eighteen hundreds. In February 1885, the main European powers signed the Berlin Act, which formalized the process of partition of Africa. The Act included the guidelines of how each country was to define its territories. The colonies on the West Coast of Africa w... Free Essays on Imperialism Imperialism was reborn in the West with the emergence of the modern nation-state and the age of exploration and discovery. It is to this modern type of empire building that the term imperialism is quite often restricted. Colonies were established not only in more or less sparsely inhabited places where there were few or no highly integrated native states (e.g., North America and Africa) but also in lands where ancient civilizations and states existed (e.g., India, Malaya, Indonesia, and the Inca lands of South America). The emigration of European settlers to people the Western Hemisphere and Africa, known as colonization , was marked by the same attitude of assumed superiority on the part of the newcomers toward the native populations that prevailed where the Europeans merely took over control without large-scale settlements. From the 15th to the 17th cent. the Portuguese and the Dutch built â€Å"trading empires† in Africa and the East for the exploitation of the resources and commerce with lands already developed. The Spanish and Portuguese established important colonies in the New World in the 16th and 17th cents., hoping to exploit the mineral wealth of the lands they conquered. The British and French imperialists became the foremost exemplars of colonial settlement in Africa and the East. Acting on mercantilist principles, the European nations in the 18th cent. attempted to regulate the trade of their colonies in the interests of the mother country. Later, the increase of manufactures in the industrial revolution introduced a new form of imperialism, as industrial nations scrambled both for markets and for raw materials. The eastward spread of Russia after the 16th cent. and the westward spread of the United States may also be termed imperialistic, although the United States did not actually acquire colonial possessions until the Spanish-American War. In the late 19th cent. Italy, Germany, and Japan also developed im... Free Essays on Imperialism â€Å"In a process of natural selection, weaker individuals were weeded out and it enables the strongest to survive.† This is a quote explaining Social Darwinism (survival of the fittest). Imperialism is a perfect example of Social Darwinism. Nations extend their economic, political, or military control over weaker territories. Imperialism is a necessity in order to achieve the accomplishment of being the most respected country. Imperialism should not be debated on the issue of morals, what should be debated is whether it is necessary or not. The answer is yes, it is necessary. All other major powers throughout the world continued to expand. If the United States did not follow others, they would become the weaker power and eventually they would be taken over. If others were to improve, you need to improve as well, or else you will be weeded out due to Social Darwinism. Throughout the world, only the strongest countries would survive. It was survival of the fittest. In order to become the fittest, a country needs to become imperial. Imperialism allowed for new strategic military American locations, such as Hawaii. These locations help ensure the safety of Americans as they live in the strongest nation in the world. The annexation of Hawaii strongly helped America because of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor. This gave the United States a warning of war. If we did not set up Pearl Harbor, then there is a chance our country could have been bombed, causing a great loss in security(military powers), lives, and in the economy. Pearl Harbor is just one example that shows how much different the United States might have been today if it were not for imperialism. The United States needed to expand, especially with all the newly acquired technology. It enabled American farms and factories to produce more than citizens can consume. America needed new markets and raw materials for its manufactured goods. Foreign trade was a solution to over... Free Essays on Imperialism In the late 19th century, imperialism was a major issue in many nations of the world. Imperialism is the extension of a nation's power due to the acquiring of territory or economic conditions through military force or political means. Countries revived the imperialistic movement because the need of raw materials and labor for industrial purposes was so great. Also, the countries wanted to increase their overall wealth and trade. Christianity gained power due to this imperialistic movement of the Western world. Missionaries became rampant in lands that had been acquired by countries of the Western world. The primary reasons that imperialism succeeded during this time were the technological and military advances of this time period. Uncivilized countries could not compete with the artillery and military prowess of the Western world. Latin America became subject to imperialism due to the poor economic conditions of its countries. The Middle East experienced the movement because of the d ecline of such vast areas as the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. The Western world gained control of Africa through trading companies from Great Britain, France, and Germany. Many countries gained territories during this period of imperialism. Persia was divided between Great Britain and Russia, and Britain also seized Burma and Malaya. The Dutch gained control of the majority of the archipelago of Indonesia. In Asia, Britain still had control of India. Japan took the area of Formosa from China, which was saved as a whole from the imperialistic powers because the United States intervened and no country wanted the other to have the advantage of possessing China. Japan defeated Russia for the control of Manchuria. Many factors gave the West an advantage over the rest of the world. Vaccines were developed. Telegraphs became essential tools of communication. The steamboat and railroad drastically reduced transportation costs for materials. Machine guns allowed count... Free Essays on Imperialism Imperialism, practice by which powerful nations or peoples seek to extend and maintain control or influence over weaker nations or peoples. Scholars frequently use the term more restrictively: Some associate imperialism solely with the economic expansion of capitalist states; others reserve it for European expansion after 1870. Imperialism refers; more broadly, to control or influence that is exercised either formally or informally, directly or indirectly, politically or economically. Imperialism dates from antiquity, and throughout history it has taken many forms. In any given historical period, certain forms tend to be more prevalent than others. In the ancient world imperialism manifested itself in a series of great empires that arose when one people, usually representing a particular civilization and religion, attempted to dominate all others by creating a unified system of control. The empire of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire are salient examples. Early modern European imperialism (1400-1750), by contrast, generally took the form of overseas colonial expansion. Rather than one state attempting to unify the world, in this period many competing states established political control over territories in South and Southeast Asia and in the New World. Imperial systems were organized according to the doctrine of mercantilism: Each imperial state attempted to control the trade of its colonies, in order to monopolize the benefits of that trade. In the mid-19th century yet another variant of imperialism appeared, the imperialism of free trade. The practice endured in this period even though mercantilism and the pace of formal empire building declined significantly. European, especially British, power and influence were extended informally, mainly through diplomatic and economic means, rather than formally, through direct colonial rule. The imperialism of free trade, however, was short-lived: By the end of the 19th century Europe... Free Essays on Imperialism Imperialism is the growth of a nation’s power by obtaining territory or economic conditions by political means or military force. Powerful countries usually try to extend their influence over weaker countries and then colonize them in order to have them expand their own power. Imperialism throughout history has had both positive and negative impacts. Imperialism can be seen as a beneficial influence, as well as a harmful influence. Although imperialism can be seen differently, it is clear that imperialism is essential for countries to grow and progress. Imperialism is a crucial step, which all countries have to make at some point. This can mainly be seen in China. China had rigorously controlled trade with other nations for an extensive period. Chinese rulers had controlled the foreign trade with a firm hand because it was in the benefaction of China. China sold tea and many other things to European merchants for silver and gold in return. This was known the balance of trade; they would export more than they import. In 1973, British desired an increase in trading rights but emperor Qianlong refused. Sometime after this demand, China has reached a period of decline. Then the Industrial Revolution had created a need for extended markets in European goods. In the 1800’s, Western nations began to use their rising power and glory to their advantage. They used this power to spread their influence over Asia along with the rest of the world. British traders discovered they could make money by trading opium for Chinese tea. In the 1830’s, British merchant ships were arriving off the coast of China. Ready to sell to the Chinese the British came with ships full of opium. The Chinese population became fixated on opium, and silver began to vanish in China in exchange for the new drug. This vast exchange had begun to disrupt the Chinese economy. The imperialism that the British were bringing on the Chinese people made thei... Free Essays on Imperialism In the late 19th century, imperialism was a major issue in many nations of the world. Imperialism is the extension of a nation's power due to the acquiring of territory or economic conditions through military force or political means. Countries revived the imperialistic movement because of political, economic, and cultural motives. This paper will serve to generally answer a few points regarding imperialism in the 19th century. It will cover certain aspects pertaining to the reasoning and outcomes of imperialism in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. All the key players who partook in imperialism had the same motives to pursue the actions they performed that we now read in history books. Europeans and Americans wanted balance in power. Well in actuality, a country would be afraid that the other countries would become too powerful and thus felt the need to acquire more political power. With this came the theory and mindset that everyone should become more like western civilizations. If countries spread to other lands and territories, it meant many opportunities from businesses and business-minded individuals. In addition, the imperialized territories would theoretically prosper from economic growth. Valuable resources of cotton, rubber, palm oil, copper, tin, gold, diamonds, tea, tobacco, sugar, and other resources were available to those who could seize them and raise the economy. The last main motive to pursue imperialistic policies was from a cultural revivalism. Apparently it was â€Å"the white man’s burden†, or duty to civilize people and teach them the ways of the western world. These three motives (political, economical, and cultural) all stemmed from a basic theory; a theory of â€Å"natural selection† and the need to be the best and the strongest, Social Darwinism. The land grab of the New Age Imperialism came about at an unprecedented speed. This would not have been the case if it weren’t for the vast economic technological ...

A History of Sparta 950-192 essays

A History of Sparta 950-192 essays The book that I read was, A History of Sparta 950-192 B.C., by W.G. Forrest. This narrative of history extends from Spartas founding in the tenth century B.C. to the Roman Conquest in 192 B.C. The book gives the reasons for Spartas rise and fall. Forrest examines the reasons why Sparta was able to conquer in war but could not maintain an empire, and why the state was too weak to survive the shock of defeat by Athens at Leuktra in 371. Sparta was founded in the tenth century and was not a city like those of the rest in Greece. By the late fifth century, Sparta had become the paragon of Greek oligarchies as Athens was the model for democracies. In 404 B.C. Athens lost the Peloponnesian War. An extraordinary experiment in imperialism had failed and the bright world she had built to dazzle the world of Greece for fifty years collapsed. Sparta was renowned for the skill and courage of their army and for the stability and excellence of their constitution. A man by the name of Lykourgos had created all the institutions which made Sparta and the Spartans what they were. Not long after the annexation of Messenia, in 708, Sparta sent out a colony of Tarentum in South Italy, her only certain colony venture after the migration period. The motive was political trouble at home; the colonists, a dissident group called the Partheniai. These people were not recognized as Spartans even though they were born of Spartan mothers and fathers. Disgruntled by this, they attempted a revolution. The first Pelonponnesian War broke out in 459 B.C. with Athens occupation of Megara and encounters with other northern allies of Sparta, which resulted in an untidy affair from the Spartan side. Sthenelaidas won by a large majority. To Sparta hegemony mattered more than a treaty. The second Peloponnesian War began in 415, when Athens committed a large part of her forces to an attack on Sicily. Athens lost the battle. No mat...

An Introduction and Guide to Real Business Cycle Theory

An Introduction and Guide to Real Business Cycle Theory Real  business cycle  theory (RBC theory) is a class of macroeconomic models and theories that were first explored by American economist John Muth in 1961. The theory has since been more closely associated with another American economist, Robert Lucas, Jr., who has been characterized as â€Å"the most influential macroeconomist in the last quarter of the twentieth century.†Ã‚  Ã‚   Intro to Economic Business Cycles Before understanding real business cycle theory, one must understand the basic concept of business cycles. A business cycle is the periodic up and down movements in the economy, which are measured by fluctuations in real GDP and other macroeconomic variables. There are sequential phases of a business cycle that demonstrate rapid growth (known as expansions or booms) followed by periods of stagnation or decline (known as contractions or declines). Expansion (or Recovery when following a trough): categorized by an increase in economic activityPeak: The upper turning point of the business cycle when expansion turns to contractionContraction: categorized by a decrease in economic activityTrough: The lower turning point of the business cycle when contraction leads to recovery and/or expansion Real business cycle theory makes strong assumptions about the drivers of these business cycle phases. Primary Assumption of Real Business Cycle Theory The primary concept behind real business cycle theory is that one must study business cycles with the fundamental assumption that they are driven entirely by technology shocks rather than by monetary shocks or changes in expectations. That is to say that RBC theory largely accounts for business cycle fluctuations with real (rather than nominal) shocks, which are defined as unexpected or unpredictable events that affect the economy. Technology shocks, in particular, are considered a result of some unanticipated technological development that impacts productivity. Shocks in government purchases are another kind of shock that can appear in a pure real business cycle (RBC Theory) model. Real Business Cycle Theory and Shocks In addition to attributing all business cycle phases to technological shocks, real business cycle theory considers business cycle fluctuations an efficient response to those exogenous changes or developments in the real economic environment. Therefore, business cycles are â€Å"real† according to RBC theory in that they do not represent the failure of markets to clear or show an equal supply to demand ratio, but instead, reflect the most efficient economic operation given the structure of that economy. As a result, RBC theory rejects Keynesian economics, or the view that in the short run economic output is primarily influenced by aggregate demand, and monetarism, the school of thought that emphasizes the role of government in controlling the amount of money in circulation. Despite their rejection of RBC theory, both of these schools of economic thought currently represent the foundation of mainstream macroeconomic policy.

Personnel Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Personnel Management - Assignment Example Personnel management requires a sound management since we need to evaluate the status of the personnel activities. This is because there are a number of functions carried out in the personnel department that include: recruitment, training, rewarding, appraising, dismissing etc. To run the personnel department, the concerned individuals need to know the entire organisation and all the employees qualifications needed for various positions. Hence, understanding of personnel management models and theories is very essential. Models and theories of personnel management assist our understanding of the role of personnel management in an organisation. Legge (1978) characterises four models of personnel management. The four models of personnel management includes: Normative, Descriptive-functional, Critical-evaluative and Descriptive-behavioural. In normative framework, the personnel manager speaks about employees in the context of teams, quality, empowerment and creativity. The underpinning of the manager's opinion, norms and values about the people who work for them are reflected in McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y. (Storey, 1995) In a cold or harsh organisation, the firm's manager may be distant, erratic, and negative or cod. Their value may be coercive or exploitive as far as their behaviours are concerned. In such circumstances the personnel department: Keep salaries, wages and terms and conditions of employment very low They hire casual labourers only They behave with insensitivity towards employees The employees are supervised thoroughly as they work The employees do not develop deep seated trust in management because of the management behaviours. These norms and behaviours fall outside the welfare, participation and empowerment norms of the neo-human relations school which include: the welfare, participation and empowerment norms of the neo-human relations school which might include the following: Encouraging people to be part of a team Responding to the aspirations of individual members of the organisation Having employment policies that reflect broad societal needs for fairness and equity By seeking secure optimum utilisation of the human resources of the organisation by fitting the right people into the right jobs with the right rewards Putting emphasise on getting results through people by securing their commitment not by coercive or demanding means. The mangers behaving consistently and with sensitivity to the needs of others by applying sound planning, organisation, communication, motivation and controlling activities to acquire, develop, maintain and use the workforce effectively and economically. Normative emphasis may be pluralistic rather than unitary. Management's role and functional human resource management policies are emphasised even more where are different vested interests and a potential for conflict between groups whose objectives are different. Managers must manage conflict in professional ways being primarily responsible for taking the initiative, developing institutional relationships and mechanisms to anticipate problems and minimise the potential for damaging conflicts of right and interest, consulting and negotiating,

Nanjing Massacre Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nanjing Massacre - Term Paper Example This unprecedented catastrophe called Nanjing Massacre, or the Rape of Nanking, was a living hell for its victims and until present time it a symbol of Japanese militarism in World War II. Western nations for some time were not acknowledging Nanjing’s tragedy. There were several political factors that have contributed to it. The Japanese government downplayed the degree of its militaristic advances during World War II immediately after the war, while both Chinese govern-ments purposefully neglected the incident as they focused on establish ¬ing their political and economic strength, which required a sound relationship with Japan. The U.S. government valued Japan's position as a strategic ally during the Cold War more than the need for justice. Such political complications led each country to circumvent the issues of Nanking. (Li, Fei-Fei, xxiii) HISTORIC BACKGROUND After the incident on the railroad in the city of Mukden in September 1931, Japan, blaming Chinese nationalists for that explosion, began the invasion of Manchuria, China. Since that time several major battles between Japanese military forces Chinese army were raged, such as battle in Shanghai (1932), Great Wall (1933). To solve the situation, some agreements were settled between China and Japan which somewhat defused the situation near Manchuria. At that time China was engulfed into the Civil War and therefore was not able to considerably oppose Japanese invasion. An important incident happened in China in December of 1936, known as Xi'an Incident, when former warlord of Manchuria was suddenly arrested and kidnapped. This incident led the Nationalists and the Communists to form an united front against Japan in 1937. It is then that an all out defense against Japanese military started, at least formally. China had the largest army in the world at the time, but most of the Chinese arm y was not trained and poorly equipped, with some troops armed mainly with swords and hand grenades. Only few corps had anti-tank weaponry. 7 July 1937 a battle between Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and the Imperial Japanese Army happened. This battle is often signify the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Shortly after that Japan extensively invaded mainland China and captured major Chinese cities. Some Chinese still remember Marco Polo Bridge Incident and Mukden as days of national humiliation. Japanese military forces had planned to conquer China in just three months, but in August of 1937 it faced strong resistance and had many casualties in the Battle of Shanghai, a very bloody hand-to-hand combat. Some historians believe that this situation contributed to the psychological conditions of the Japanese soldiers to later be so grueling cruel in Nanjing. The Japanese had captured Shanghai only by mid-November with the help of fleet and Air Force. The casual ties were so heavy that General Staff Headquarters in Tokyo decided not to expand the war. By that time the morale of the troops were very low. As the Japanese army grew closer to Nanjing, Chinese civilians fled the city. Chinese military themselves were destroying anything in the city that might be of value to the Japanese army – many buildings in the city, forest and entire villages around Nanjing were burnt to the ground. NANJING MASSACRE On December 7, the Japanese army came close to the city walls of Nanjing. They dropped leaflets into the city, requesting the surrender of Nanjing within 24 hours and promising mercy to innocent civilians.

The CAGE and AAA Models as the Drivers of Globalization Essay - 3

The CAGE and AAA Models as the Drivers of Globalization - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that globalization, in the business sector, is widening. More and more companies, in the recent days, have either gone global or are contemplating on doing so. The reason as to why a company needs to globalize its dealings are still unclear to most, but they believe that more the company spreads its branches internationally the better. Globalisation comes with its challenges though. Being an international business entails a myriad of issues. It is in this connection that various frameworks and models have been formulated to give insight on what is required successfully to establish an international business. Nokia, BOEING, Renault, FedEx, Virgin Group and Vodafone are perfect examples of successful international companies. Nokia, for instance, is a handset manufacturing company, whose products are sold in over 150 countries. The company earns an estimated annual income of 38 billion sterling pounds. In India, Nokia is the largest multinatio nal company, yet the company is located in Finland. Nokia employed a cost leadership technique in India, to look for various ways of cutting cost and making their products readily available. These involved setting up manufacturing stations for handsets, creating financial options for mobile phones and together with network providers to reduce airtime cost. Nokia also created the distribution network that attracted over 25000 dealers, this was three times the size of Samsung and six times the six that of Sony Ericsson. Moreover, Nokia considered working with distributors of fast moving consumer goods and consumer durables. This enabled their products to be readily available to consumers on the market, thus explaining their dominance in India. Nokia operates in the telephone and communications industry. Globalisation has a played a notable role in this type of industry. Companies are monopolizing their dealing, and this has substantially led to globalization. Large telecommunication c ompanies have taken over this industry and hence denying the smaller companies a chance to develop. The local companies are faced with stiff competition from these multinationals making them pull out of business. According to the CAGE and AAA frameworks, this kills local entrepreneurial spirits and increases dependence on the advanced nations. However, globalization has led to improved services in the telecommunication sector. Large organizations have sufficient capital, hence, investing in expensive networks that are of highly rated. The networks provide faster transfer of quality sound and videos, which are convenient for subscribers. The success of any multinational company depends on the strategies they decide to adopt. A proper framework gives the business guidelines, which could enable it to attain multinationalism. Some of the most popular frameworks include the CAGE distance framework, AAA model, Adding Value and Drivers of Globalization. CAGE distance framework considers th e cultural, administrative, geographical, as well as economic differences, and factors when selecting the countries a company should address when crafting international strategies. This framework was formulated by Pankaj Ghemawat, a business professor, in Spain, at the IESE Business School. The framework links interactions between countries to their national incomes divided by some composite measure of distance. Cultural distance, in this case, refers to the difference in languages, ethnicities, religion, values, norms, and dispositions of a particular nation. Companies should use the CAGE distance framework as it includes both bilateral and unilateral factors. It is also more practical than other frameworks due to some of its aspects.

Analysis on the medieval play Noah's Flood Research Paper

Analysis on the medieval play Noah's Flood - Research Paper Example Her character is belittled in the play as a woman who lacks wisdom, foresight and who is not submissive to her husband. Her reaction suggests that she likes gossiping with her friends and actually seems to prefer to stay on with them as opposed to going into the ark with Noah. According to her, her friends are the people who truly love her and care for her and she believes she is the only one that can ensure those friends are saved (Page 314: 200-8). In the case of Noah’s wife, the hierarchical trends in society are bucked to the extent that Noah appears to be a henpecked man who submits to the will of his wife; hence it is his wife who appears to have authority in their household. For example, despite her resistance to going into the ark, Noah is concerned about her and asks his sons to bring her on (www.lib.rochester.edu). He says: â€Å"Welcome wife, into the boat† (Page 315:245) but Noah’s wife’s reaction is to give him a sharp slap, with the response, â€Å"Have thou that for thy note!† (Page 315:246). Noah does not retaliate as another man would have done, to put his wife in her place with sharp, belittling words or physical violence. He winces at the slap he receives and says, â€Å"Aha Mary, this is hot!† (Page 315:247), but merely continues â€Å"It is good to be still.† (Page 315:248). The play about Noah’s Flood is very important in the religious context, because it sets out various themes that are later also replicated in the Bible. The inclusion and depiction of the character of Noah’s wife is significant, especially when compared to Adam and Eve. Noah appears to be like Adam – a godly man with a rebellious wife. Noah’s wife’s resistance to going into the ark appears to symbolize the sin of mankind (www.geocities.com). In a similar manner to Noah’s wife refusing to go into the ark, man also refuses to turn

Research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Research paper - Essay Example There are similarities between Chinatown, Oakland’s Oak Park, and my birthplace, Thailand. The three racial/ethnic communities prefer congregating in public squares and meeting people (Wong 8). The Chinatown communities aggregate in Portsmouth Park and Oak Park to exchange pleasantries. Similarly Thai people exchange greetings and stories in their local parts and other public places. People play board games in both Chinatown communities and Thai communities (Subramanian 107). The people of these communities eat food in festive moods. Robert Park states that some ethnic communities use religion to resolve mental health issues as they adjust to the different culture of the host country, while keeping the ethnicity intact (Park, 118). However, there are differences between the first group composed of San Francisco Chinatown community and Oakland Oak Park Chinatown community and the second group of Thai residents. Some of the first group’s communities’ streets are dirty while the Thai communities’ streets are clean. For example, the smell of Portsmouth Park stinks from garbage while Bangkok does have any street garbage, emitting flower-fresh air. Second, there is no order in the first group while strict government control brings order to the Thai community. A visit to both San Francisco Chinatown and Oakland Oak Park shows the people freely throwing litter everywhere. No one takes influential charge of cleaning the garbage. On the other hand, the Thai government hires enough workers to clean the streets of garbage and other eye sores. In terms of space, people in San Francisco Chinatown and Oakland Oak Park are too tightly packed compared Thais living in Bangkok or any Thailand community. The spaces of the apartment rooms have the same size as toilet rooms. On top of that, there are at least 4 people sharing one bedroom

Analysis on the medieval play Noah's Flood Research Paper

Analysis on the medieval play Noah's Flood - Research Paper Example Her character is belittled in the play as a woman who lacks wisdom, foresight and who is not submissive to her husband. Her reaction suggests that she likes gossiping with her friends and actually seems to prefer to stay on with them as opposed to going into the ark with Noah. According to her, her friends are the people who truly love her and care for her and she believes she is the only one that can ensure those friends are saved (Page 314: 200-8). In the case of Noah’s wife, the hierarchical trends in society are bucked to the extent that Noah appears to be a henpecked man who submits to the will of his wife; hence it is his wife who appears to have authority in their household. For example, despite her resistance to going into the ark, Noah is concerned about her and asks his sons to bring her on (www.lib.rochester.edu). He says: â€Å"Welcome wife, into the boat† (Page 315:245) but Noah’s wife’s reaction is to give him a sharp slap, with the response, â€Å"Have thou that for thy note!† (Page 315:246). Noah does not retaliate as another man would have done, to put his wife in her place with sharp, belittling words or physical violence. He winces at the slap he receives and says, â€Å"Aha Mary, this is hot!† (Page 315:247), but merely continues â€Å"It is good to be still.† (Page 315:248). The play about Noah’s Flood is very important in the religious context, because it sets out various themes that are later also replicated in the Bible. The inclusion and depiction of the character of Noah’s wife is significant, especially when compared to Adam and Eve. Noah appears to be like Adam – a godly man with a rebellious wife. Noah’s wife’s resistance to going into the ark appears to symbolize the sin of mankind (www.geocities.com). In a similar manner to Noah’s wife refusing to go into the ark, man also refuses to turn

Over-education In the Ggaduate Labour Market Case Study Of UK Market Essay

Over-education In the Ggaduate Labour Market Case Study Of UK Market - Essay Example This essay declares that there are various reasons that signify why policy maker needs to concern about the fact of over-education especially in recent time. Majority of the worker are leaving their jobs due to lack of job satisfaction and this imposes huge waste on the government. In order to remove the incidence of over-education problem, government, and other policy makers are trying to modify the UK’s labour market structure. They have already started to relate qualification of the future worker with the changing requirements of labour market. The literature on over-education shows that there was an unfavourable effect of the over-education issues on wage. The over educated people deserve higher wage than what they are actually paid. This paper has tried to evaluate the implication of over-education problem among the graduate in the UK’s labour market. Over-education has an impact on both wages and job satisfaction. In order to eliminate or reduce the consequence of over-education problem, the policy maker needs to become more concerned about the problem. In this context, several policies can be suggested here. The government needs to increase the effectiveness of their strategies for creating skill-based jobs and improve the condition of the job market. Further, policy makers can advice workers on the labour market to choose their career option according to their qualifications. In this way, government can take future steps to eliminate the issues of over-education problem.

Jewish American Literature Essay Example for Free

Jewish American Literature Essay Jewish American Literature holds an essential place in the literary history of the United States. It encompasses traditions of writing in English, primarily, as well as in other languages, the most important of which has been Yiddish. While critics and authors generally acknowledge the notion of a distinctive corpus and practice of writing about Jewishness in America, many writers resist being pigeonholed as Jewish voices. Also, many nominally Jewish writers cannot be considered representative of Jewish American literature, one example being Isaac Asimov. Beginning with the memoirs and petitions composed by the Sephardic immigrants who arrived in America during the mid 17th century, Jewish American writing grew over the subsequent centuries to flourish in other genres as well, including fiction, poetry, and drama. The first notable voice in Jewish- American literature was Emma Lazarus whose poem ‘The New Colossus’ on the Statue of Liberty became the great hymnal of American immigration. Gertrude Stein became one of the most influential prose-stylists of the early 20th century. The early twentieth century saw the appearance of two pioneering American Jewish novels: Abraham Cahans The Rise of David Levinsky and Henry Roth’s Call it Sleep. It reached some of its most mature expression in the 20th century ‘Jewish American novels’ by Saul Bellow, J. D. Salinger, Norman Mailer, Bernard Malamud, Chaim Potok, and Philip Roth. Their work explored the conflicting pulls between secular society and Jewish tradition which were acutely felt by the immigrants who passed through Ellis Island and by their children and grandchildren. More recent authors like Nicole Krauss, Paul Auster, Michael Chabon, Jonathan Safran Foer andArt Spiegelman have continued to examine dilemmas of identity in their work, turning their attention especially to the Holocaust and the trends of both ongoing assimilation and cultural rediscovery exhibited by younger generations of American Jews. Arguably the most influential of all American- Jewish novels was Leon Uris Exodus. Its story of the struggle to create the modern state of Israel translated into Russian became the inspiration for hundreds of thousands of Russian immigrants to Israel. Modern Jewish American novels often contain (a few or many) Jewish characters and address issues and themes of importance to Jewish American society such as assimilation, Zionism/Israel, and Anti-Semitism, along with the recent phenomenon known as New Anti-Semitism. Two Jewish- American writers have won the Nobel Prize, Isaac Bashevis Singer and Saul Bellow. Bernard Malamud is considered one of the most prominent figures in Jewish –American literature. BERNARD MALAMUD ( 1914-1986). Malamud’s stories and novels, in which reality and fantasy are frequently interfaced have been compared to parables, myths and analogies and often illustrate the importance of moral obligation. Although he draws upon his Jewish heritage to address the themes of sins, suffering, and redemption, Malamud emphasizes human contact and compassion over orthodox religious dogma. Malamud’s characters, while often awkward and isolated from society, evoke both pity and humor through their attempts at survival and salvation. Sheldon J. Hershinow observed: â€Å"Out of the everyday defeats and indignities of ordinary people, Malamud creates beautiful parables that capture the joy as well as the pain of life; he expresses the dignity of the human spirit searching for freedom and moral growth in the face for hardship, injustice, and the existential anguish of life. BIOGRAPHY Malamud was born on April 28, 1914, in Brooklyn, New York, to Russian Jewish immigrants. His parents, whom he described as â€Å"gentle, honest, kindly people,† were not highly educated and knew very little about literature of the arts: â€Å"There were no books in the house, no records, music, pictures on the wall. † Malamud attended high school in Brooklyn and received his bachelor’s degree from the City College of New York in 1936. After graduation, he worked in a factory and as a clerk at the central bureau in Washington, D. C. Although he wrote in his spare time, Malamud did not begin writing seriously until the advent of the Second World War and the subsequent horrors of the Holocausts. He questioned his religious identity and started reading about Jewish tradition and history . He explained: â€Å"I was concerned with what Jews stood for, with their getting down to the bare  bones of things. I was concerned with their ethnically –how Jews felt for they had to live order to go on living. † In 1949, he began teaching at Oregan State University; he left this post in 1961 to teach creative writing at Bennington College in Vermont. He remained there until shortly before his death in 1986. Starting in 1949, Malamud taught four sections of freshman composition each semester at Oregon State University (OSU), an experience fictionalized in his 1961 novel ‘A New Life’. Because he lacked the Ph. D., he was not allowed to teach literature courses, and for a number of years his rank was that of instructor. In those days, OSU, a land grant university, placed little emphasis on the teaching of humanities or the writing of fiction. While at OSU, he devoted 3 days out of every week to his writing, and gradually emerged as a major American author. In 1961, he left OSU to teach creative writing at Bennington College, a position he held until retirement. In 1967, he was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1942, Malamud met Ann De Chiara (November 1, 1917 March 20, 2007), an Italian-American Roman Catholic, and a 1939 Cornell University graduate. They married on November 6, 1945, despite the opposition of their respective parents. Ann typed his manuscripts and reviewed his writing. Ann and Bernard had two children, Paul (b. 1947) and Janna (b. 1952). Janna Malamud Smith is the author of a memoir about her father, titled My Father is a Book. Malamud died in Manhattan in 1986, at the age of 71. WORKS OF MALAMUD Malamud’s first novel, ‘The Natural’ (1952 ) ,is considered one of his most symbolic works . While the novel ostensibly traces the life of Roy Hobbs, an American baseball player , the work has underlying mythic elements and explores such themes as initiation and isolation. For instance, some reviewers cited evidence of the Arthurian legend of the Holy Grail; others applied T. S. Eliot’s ‘wasteland’ myth in their analyses ‘The Natural’ also foreshadows what would become Malamud’s predominant narrative focus: a suffering protagonist struggling to reconcile moral dilemmas, to act according to what is right, and to accept the complexities and hardships of existence. Malamud‘s second novel, ‘The Assistant’ (1957), portrays the life of Morris Bober, a Jewish immigrant who owns a grocery store in Brooklyn. Although he is struggling to survive financially, Bober hires a cynical anti-semitic youth, Frank Aloine after learning that the man is homeless and on the verge of starvation. Through this contact Frank learns to find grace and dignity in his own identity. Described as naturalistic fable, this novel affirms the redemptive value of maintaining faith in the goodness of the human soul. Malamud’s first collection of short stories, ‘The Magic Barrel’, (1958) was awarded the National Book award in 1959. Like ‘The Assistant’, most of the stories in this collection depict the search for hope and meaning within the grim entrapment of poor urban settings and were influenced by Yiddish folktales and Hasidic traditions. Many of Malamud’s best known short stories, including ‘The Last Mohican’, ‘Angel Levine’, and ‘Idiots First’, were republished in ‘The Stories of Bernard Malamud’ in 1983. ‘A New Life’ (1961), considered one of Malamuds most true-to-life novels, is based in part on Malamuds teaching career at Oregon State University. This work focuses on an ex-alcoholic Jew from New York City who becomes a professor at a college in the Pacific Northwest. It examines the main characters search for self-respect, while poking fun at life at a learning institution. Malamuds next novel, ‘The Fixer’ (1966), is one of his most powerful works. The winner of both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award, this book is based on the historical account of Mendel Beiliss, a Russian Jew who was accused of murdering a Christian child. With ‘The Tenants’ (1971), Malamud returns to a New York City setting in a contrast between two writers—one Jewish and the other African American—struggling to survive in an urban ghetto. Malamud further addresses the nature of literature and the role of the artist in ‘Dublin’s Lives’ (1979). In this work, the protagonist, William Dublin, attempts to create a sense of worth for himself, both as a man and as a writer. Malamuds last finished novel, ‘Gods Grace’ (1982), studies both the original Holocaust and a new, imagined Holocaust of the future. The novel is a wild, at times brilliant, at times confusing, description of a flood similar to that in the Bible story of Noahs ark. Malamud continued to place stories in top American magazines. Mervyn Rothstein reported in the New York Times that Malamud said at the end of his life, With me, its story, story, story. In Malamuds next-to-last collection, ‘Rembrandts Hat’, only one story, ‘The Silver Crown’, deals with Jewish themes. Malamud is also renowned for his short stories, often oblique allegories set in a dreamlike urban ghetto of immigrant Jews. Of Malamud the short story writer, Flannery OConnor wrote: I have discovered a short-story writer who is better than any of them, including myself. He published his first stories in 1943, ‘Benefit Performance’ in Threshold and ‘The Place Is Different Now’ in American Preface. In the early 1950s, his stories began appearing in Harpers Bazaar, Partisan Review, and Commentary. ‘The Magic Barrel’ was his first published collection of short stories (1958) and his first winner of his first National Book Award for Fiction. Most of the stories depict the search for hope and meaning within the bleak enclosures of poor urban settings. The title story focuses on the unlikely relationship of Leo Finkle, an unmarried rabbinical student, and Pinye Salzman, a colorful marriage broker. Finkle has spent most of life with his nose buried in books and therefore isn’t well-educated in life itself. However, Finkle has a greater interest – the art of romance. He engages the services of Salzman, who shows Finkle a number of potential brides from his magic barrel but with each picture Finkle grows more uninterested. After Salzman convinces him to meet Lily Hirschorn, Finkle realizes his life is truly empty and lacking the passion to love God or humanity. When Finkle discovers a picture of Salzman’s daughter and sees her suffering, he sets out on a new mission to save her. Other well-known stories included in the collection are: ‘The Last Mohican’, ‘Angel Levine’, ‘Idiots First’, and ‘The Mourners’. This last story focuses on Kessler, the defiant old man in need of social security and Gruber, the belligerent landlord who doesnt want Kessler in the tenement anymore. Malamud’s fiction touches lightly upon mythic elements and explores themes like isolation, class, and the conflict between bourgeois and artistic values. His prose, like his settings, is an artful pastiche of Yiddish-English locutions, punctuated by sudden lyricism. Writing in the second half of the twentieth century, Malamud was well aware of the social problems of his day: rootlessness, infidelity, abuse, divorce, and more. But he also depicted love as redemptive and sacrifice as uplifting. In his writings, success often depends on cooperation between antagonists. For example, in The Mourners landlord and tenant learn from each others anguish. In ‘The Magic Barrel’, the matchmaker worries about his fallen daughter, while the daughter and the rabbinic student are drawn together by their need for love and salvation. Malamuds third story ‘Rembrandts Hat’ collection is noteworthy for its consistently pessimistic tone and theme of failed communication in stories such as ‘My Son the Murderer’, ‘The Silver Crown’, and ‘The Letter’. ‘The volume The People’, and ‘Uncollected Stories’ contains an unfinished novel about a Russian Jewish peddler in the American West who becomes a marshal and is kidnapped by Indians. It also includes fourteen stories written between 1943 and 1985. LIST OF OTHER NOTABLE JEWISH AMERICAN WRITERS †¢ Aimee Bender — novelist and short story writer, known for her often fantastic and surreal plots and characters †¢ Saul Bellow, novelist that won the Pulitzer Prize, the Nobel Prize for Literature, and the National Medal of Arts †¢ Bernard Cooper, novelist, short story writer †¢ E. L. Doctorow, novelist †¢ Richard Ellmann, literary critic, won National Book Award for Nonfiction †¢ Barthold Fles, literary agent and non-fiction writer †¢ Emma Goldman, anarchist writer †¢ Joseph Heller, author of Catch-22 †¢ Christopher Hitchens, literary critic and political activist †¢ Irving Howe, literary critic †¢ Roger Kahn. The Boys of Summer 1972 †¢ Jerzy Kosinski, author of The Painted Bird †¢ Emma Lazarus, poet and novelist †¢ Fran Lebowitz, author, known for her sardonic social commentary on American life through her New York sensibilities †¢ Seymour Martin Lipset, political sociologist. †¢ Reggie Nadelson, novelist known particularly for her mystery works †¢ Mark Obama Ndesandjo, author, half-brother of President Barack Obama †¢ Cynthia Ozick, short story writer, novelist, and essayist †¢ Jodi Picoult, novelist †¢ Ayn Rand, novelist and founder of Objectivism †¢ Lea Bayers Rapp, non-fiction and childrens fiction writer †¢ Philip Roth, known for autobiographical fiction that explored Jewish and American identity. †¢ Norman Rosten, novelist †¢ J. D. Salinger, author of The Catcher in the Rye †¢ Gary Shteyngart (born 1972) Russian-born writer †¢ Isaac Bashevis Singer, leading figure in Yiddish literature, won Nobel Prize †¢ George Steiner (born 1929) literary critic †¢ Daniel Stern, novelist] †¢ Leopold Tyrmand, writer †¢ Judith Viorst (born 1932) author, known for her childrens literature †¢ Elie Wiesel, Holocaust survivor and author of 57 books CONCLUSION The situation and the position of the Jewish-American writer have always been different from that of the other ethnicities in America and still remain so until today. One difference is highlighted by a comparison with the African-American writers. The marginal position of black authors has disappeared on the book market in the United States, but the themes of alienation and anger will not vanish as readily from their works. Instead of integration into the Literary and artistic mainstream, black writers and artists wanted, especially since the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s, to arrive at their own forms of literary expression which would have direct relevance for their lives. They wished to answer the question of their relationship to white mainstream culture by implementing a multicultural strategy: their literature is not that of assimilation, but in many ways that of establishing difference, separatism, and cultural resistance. While with the African-American writers there is no sense of the success or even desirability of social and cultural integration into the predominantly white mainstream of American society, many Jewish-American authors felt it as necessary and desirable, and as a result even managed to acquire it. Indeed, a great number of contemporary Jewish-American writers such as Norman Mailer, Saul Bellow, Joseph Heller, Bernard Malamud, Arthur Miller, Philip Roth and others have had literary success. The language employed by these writers is standard American English, they are socially accepted, and their works are read by a wide Jewish and non-Jewish audience. For this reason it is widely considered that their texts form part of a recognized literary canon, and belong to the American literary center or mainstream, as far as this may still be defined today. As much as we agreed to this idea we cannot ignore several facts which underline the necessity to view Jewish American literary productions as shaped by strong ethnic forces, and Jewish American literature as both belonging to and standing out in the multicultural American landscape. BIBLOGRAPHY Books Sanford, Sternlicht Masterpieces of Jewish American Literature Cristina, Nilsson Jewish American Literature: Bernard Malamud, Philip Roth and Cynthia Ozick Websites http://en. wikipedia. org http://www. swiftpapers. com http:// Top of Form.